Chapter 15—Christian Art: From Catacombs to Cathedrals

Introduction: In the age of cyber screen information, it seems esoteric to contemplate a time when book pages were hand-lettered and illustrated. It may seem even more remote to think of having to manufacture the pages of a book from animal hides! This chapter examines art of the Christian era dating back to the catacombs and up through the Gothic period in Europe. It investigates styles of religious art with links to Classicism as well as influences from Byzantium. Individual rulers, such as Justinian or Charlemagne, had powerful impact on the art viewed today as Christian art and artifacts. Innovations in Romanesque and Gothic architecture still inspire awe in us today when as tourists we visit the famous cathedrals on the pilgrimage routes of Europe. A glimpse at traditional women's arts—tapestry, embroidery, and weaving—of Medieval times, reveals historical lore and hints at how people spent their time. In A Closer Look – Hildegarde of Bingen, medieval book illumination arts are brought into focus, in particular the Pentateuchal visions of an intelligent and artistically inclined abbess who instructed other women to illustrate manuscripts.

Chapter 15 – Why Read It? Much art from antiquity is based in religious thought: depictions of deities or elaborately stocked and artistically decorated tombs designed to assist the deceased in their journey into immortality after the death of their physical bodies. Who can fail to be impressed by the ambitions, artistry, and religious intent of the Great Pyramids at Giza? Or the intrepid image of a Mycenaean king’s face in a gold mask?

Even though other purposes might be intertwined within a work of art—such as Hammurabi’s Law Code Stele (Chapter 13), whose intended purposes were to regulate human behavior and specify punishments for law breakers, or the Ara Pacis Augustae altar (Chapter 14), whose purpose was to commemorate the Augustan peace with an impressive monument in the Augustan forum—religious meaning pervades: Hammurabi is depicted standing in front of a God and writing down the laws from the ultimate authority on a clay tablet using a stylus. Gaia, the earth mother, is glorified in a relief panel of the Ara Pacis with the fruitfulness of the earth surrounding her, and, of course, the entire structure was designed as an altar, made for sacrifice to the gods and for divination purposes.

So why is an entire chapter devoted to studying Christian art? There are some important reasons. Of the ancient religions, Judaism and later Christianity stand out as monotheistic religions amongst a panoply of polytheistic religions, with the rare exception of Amarna Period Egypt—and even there, Akhenaton was later denounced as a heretic. Additionally, Christianity, as it spread across Europe during the Period of Recognition, both in the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, created dramatic economic, sociological, and political changes. Some of the most terrible wars, murders, amazing pilgrimages, bloody Crusades, powerful land holdings by rich monasteries, and, of course, awe-inspiring architecture and stunning works of painting, mosaic, sculpture, writing, and illuminated manuscripts, were forged in the fires of religious fervor. Christianity’s impact is still prevalent in much of Europe and the Middle East, and of course into the Americas, for better or for worse, as it came into contact with the Native American people through the Spaniards. Even in contemporary art of today, according to art critic and writer Eleanor Heartney, some of the most powerful and shocking art is created, for some reason, by lapsed Catholics such as Robert Mapplethorpe or Andrés Serrano.

If you have ever experienced the sense of grand scale a person has when they enter a Romanesque or Gothic church such as Chartres or St. Sernin, or have an opportunity to examine a manuscript page from the medieval period, or tour the ancient catacombs under the streets of Rome, you cannot help wondering what it must have been like to live in that period, to hear the mystical acoustics of plain chant or Gregorian singing, so different from the secular and instrumental music of the times. Imagine having nearly every aspect of your daily life from baptism to burial dictated by an overwhelming sense of religious propriety.

Chapter 15 also provides ample comparison and contrast to the arts emerging from the other powerful religions of Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Shintoism and the belief systems, complex and beautiful, of Native American, African, and Oceanic groups. See if you can discover similar or vastly different threads of religion as they are portrayed in the art forms of these various cultures.

Understanding Concepts: If you rent a place to live, you are a tenant and probably have a landlord—terms derived from the European feudal system! Some monastic orders are still active in the world today, and many people travel to famous sites mentioned in this chapter for the sole purpose of pilgrimage.

1. If you research the Medieval period, you will find much writing about the lives of people during that time period, including economics, travel, (does Canterbury Tales come to mind?) health, medical practices, monasticism, feudalism, the Crusades and Pilgrimage, and of course, art and architecture.

• What are some of the stories you have heard about the catacombs, early Christianity, and changes in people’s lives made during the Medieval Period?

• What were some medical practices of the time? What caused "The Great Plague"?

• How were books made and who read them?

• How does the use of art for religious purposes in Medieval times compare to our own?

2. Comparatively speaking, what are some of the similarities and differences in the uses of art for religion between Christianity and Islam, Buddhism, or Hinduism (see Chapter 18)? Record your findings below:

• Christianity:

• Islam

• Buddhism

• Hinduism

Making Connections:

1. With A Closer Look – Hildegarde of Bingen you have a well-illustrated opportunity to see how an artist from this time period painted or illustrated gospel books. There was a specific religious theme, but the artist also had some flexibility in the translation of an idea into its visual form. This will be a prevalent theme as we explore religious art in the Renaissance, Baroque, and beyond.

• Imagine yourself as an artist being asked to illustrate a religious scene that others will look upon to draw inspiration. What kinds of constraints might you find being placed upon your creativity if you lived in the Medieval period?

• What kinds of specific freedoms or variations might you feel able to impose upon a well-known theme such as the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, or the Resurrection?

2. Considering that the hand illumination of books was the most important form of painting during the Middle Ages, what occurred to make painting begin to appear on walls once again? What transformed the art of bookmaking in the 16^th century?

• Research book arts and their history. Did you know there are people today who practice the art of hand illumination using the exact tools and materials—such as parchment pages, feather quill pens and hand-brewed ink—as the Carolingian artists? Your notes:

3. Renewed interest in the German abbess Hildegarde of Bingen, mentioned above, has caused her work, the Liber Scivias, to be translated and printed—it’s now available as a paperback book. Some of her songs have been recorded and released in current day sound recording formats.

• See if you can locate either her writings or her music and get a feel for it.

• What kinds of present-day influences do you suppose have inspired a newly kindled interest in her works and other medieval works?

4. Some museums, archives, and libraries that house rare, handmade, and ancient books have conscripted modern technology to give people more access than is physically possible for these fragile works. Viewing many of the pages is now possible through websites and CD ROMs where people can “leaf through” the Book of Kells, for example, without ever leaving home to visit Trinity College Library in Dublin, Ireland, or going to the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria, to see Charlemagne’s Coronation Gospel, or going to the Bibliothèque Municipale, Epernay, France to see The Gospel Book of Archbishop Ebbo.

Most people enjoy their museum visits more after a virtual tour, because they feel better informed and have seen more than they might in a brief viewing, especially of books, since only two facing pages of a book can be displayed in a glass case at a time.

• Try finding some of these book arts archive sites and record what you discover! List them here with your comments:

5. Works of art in this chapter can be better understood by finding out how they were made. Refer to other chapters in our text to learn more about methods for stone sculpture (see Chapter 9); architecture (see Chapter 11); and craft arts such as tapestry making, metals casting, and stained glass (see Chapter 12). You can also find other examples of Medieval art in other chapters of our text including an example of Chinese illuminated manuscript in Chapter 2 (image 2-60). By looking at the beginning of Chapter 6 on fresco painting, you can even get a better idea of how the fresco painting The Good Shepherd, in the Catacombs of Saints Pietro and Marcellino in Rome (image 15-2), was painted. Additionally, much of the art of manuscript illumination in books is attributed to the arts of the Muslim world (see Chapter 18). Look for these and other connections as you read or review.

Taking Notes: Chapter 15 has 29 images in it. Your instructor will probably show most of these in class when discussing this chapter. There are a few images from other chapters coinciding with the content of this chapter—for example, the interior of the Hagia Sophia in Chapter 1—but images from other sources may supplement information on Medieval art and architecture. Chapter 11 should be referred to for diagrams of arch-and-bay systems utilized by the Romanesque and Gothic architects. Preparing your note-taking template will help you take meaningful notes in class. You will especially need to note, either in writing or with small sketches, the distinguishing features of the architectural works being presented; for example, which structure has an ambulatory, and which has double aisles alongside the nave? Which has double aisles around the apse?

1. Take several pages of your notebook paper as before, write the caption information for each image, and leave space for other examples, details, and sketches between each entry. Examples:

15-3 Plan and Section of Old St. Peter's in Rome (Early Christian), first half of 4^th century CE. (propylaeum, atrium, narthex, aisles, nave, transept, and apse of a basilica plan)

15-4 Church of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy (Byzantine, c. 526–547) Exterior and Plan.

15-19 West Portal Tympanum: Last Judgment, Cathedral of Autun, Burgundy, France, c. 1130

[insert UNF-p.111-1 here]

Discussions of architecture from the Medieval period often include quite a few details about certain types of support structures such as ribbed vaulting or flying buttresses—innovations architects used to solve the problems of support and letting light into the interior of large buildings. Be prepared to quickly sketch diagrams your instructor may show that demonstrate distinguishing features of these works from different time periods or regions. This will help you remember them later.

Remember, these little sketches do not need to be professional drawings—they are visual recognition tools for you to refer to later when recalling what was being discussed in class about each work of art.

Take another note page to define vocabulary words that are unfamiliar. Use the glossary in the back of the textbook to familiarize yourself with their definitions and uses. Mark any you are unfamiliar with, especially in reference to a work of art, and ask about it in class. Note that many of these refer to architectural modules. Example:

Note: Ask in class about:

Lunette, Tympanum, Contrapposto

The difference between a longitudinal plan and a basilica plan

What is a Tribune Gallery? A triforium?

Preparing for Tests: By the time you have prepared your note-taking template and vocabulary list, you will already be familiar with the materials in this chapter. This means you will be able to participate more fully in class discussions about these topics and images of art. If asked to write a paper pertinent to subjects in this chapter, such as researching life in Medieval times and the role of Cathedrals in the economic balance of Medieval cities, appropriate use of the vocabulary terms will enhance your writing. Later, when it is time to review this chapter for the test, you will have a very detailed set of notes. These notes will show you which images were emphasized in class. You will be able to review specific details about each artwork—such as its time period or art movement, artist name, method of creation, title, and date—and to review sketches of certain works and the details on which to focus. You should also be able to deduce, to some reasonable degree of accuracy, what your instructor might choose from to create various test questions. Here are some possible test questions (answers are found at the end of the chapter):

• Image 15-29

Which of the following is a characteristic of the jamb figures of the High Gothic style as seen in Reims Cathedral?

A. Rigid pose B. Contrapposto

C. No facial expression D. None of these

• Image 15-2

The study and interpretation of symbols, such as those in this fresco, is called:

A. iconology B. ornithology

C. phrenology D. ichthiology

• Image 15-7

Upon which plan is St. Mark's in Venice built?

A. Basilica B. Latin Cross

C. Greek Cross D. Circular

• Sample essay question: Discuss in detail the role of religious ideology in the creation of a specific work from the Medieval time period. You may use a work of architecture, illuminated manuscript, sculpture, or a crafted item, citing specific detail and provenance.

Review more sample questions on the Understanding Art website: (www.cengage.com/art/fichner-rathus9e), in the Student Test Packet, or on the ArtExperience Online for Understanding Art).

Enhancing Your Observational Skills: Have you ever visited a cathedral? Even if you are visiting one solely for tourism, it may have an awe-inspiring effect upon your sense of space and scale. In order to discover what Lionel Tiger means in his quotation at the beginning of this chapter, it will be important for you to someday visit one of the great cathedrals.

1. If visiting a cathedral isn’t possible during your current studies, try to find a book, documentary, or movie featuring scenes in a cathedral, so you can get a sense of its originality, acoustic properties, and grandeur. Examples:

• The Name of the Rose, by Umberto Ecco. A book and a movie.

• Devil’s Advocate. A movie with Al Pacino.

• Walk Through Tour of Amiens Cathedral, a 12-minute documentary (Columbia University Media Center).

• Documentary on the Building of Washington National Cathedral, Washington D.C., 30 minutes. (PBS)

2. Acoustic Properties of Cathedral Architecture: Find a musical recording of Gregorian plainsong or chant that might have been performed in a cathedral famous for its acoustic properties. Listen to it and record your impressions:

[start Box]

[end Box]

3. Investigate the craft arts of mosaic or stained-glass making. (See Chapter 12 and websites on contemporary methods for these crafts.)

• What steps are involved in creating the intricate pictures featured in both of these art forms?

• How did these forms tie in with the overall plans of the architecture and religious themes of the times?

For More Understanding: Your text mentions examples of Medieval architecture in Chapter 11. Chapter 18 briefly examines Islamic arts, derived from a religion that began in Medieval times and influenced art and architecture throughout Europe. Study and research some of these readily available examples from other chapters in order to enhance your understanding.

In addition, visit the website for Understanding Art (www.cengage.com/art/fichner-rathus9e), which features a glossary and audio pronunciation guide, sample test questions, and more.

Go to ArtExperience Online for Understanding Art: View works of art from this time period, and use the flashcard section to create a study set of images and figure drawings.

Also learn more about the information and artwork presented in the A Closer Look section.

Notes and Links to Remember:

(answers to sample multiple-choice questions: d, a, c)